Spelling Rules

This chapter is designed to help you refresh your spelling skills by teaching you the rules you need to know to spell your best. You'll learn strategies to help you spell hyphenated and compound words and words with tricky letter combinations, unusual plurals, prefixes, suffixes, apostrophes, and abbreviations.

In the English language, if you simply wrote words the way they sound, you'd come up with some very peculiar spellings. If you tried to sound out every word and pronounce it exactly the way it's written, you'd come up with some pretty odd pronunciations too.

Here are some general multisensory tips for studying spelling:

• Use your eyes.

Look at words carefully. With a marker or pen, highlight the part of the word that is hard to remember.

Visualize the word with your eyes closed.

• Use your ears.

Listen for the sound of words you hear in conversation or on the radio or television.

Listen to the sound of the spelling of words. Ask someone to dictate the words and their spelling, and listen as the word is spelled out.

• Use your hands.

Write the word several times, spelling it in your head as you write.

There are two main stumbling blocks to spelling by sight and sound. One we have already identified—the fact that English is both phonetically inconsistent and visually confusing. Here are four strategies that can guide your way through a difficult system and give you some ways to make good spelling a part of your life.

1. Learn the rules, but expect some exceptions. The lessons that follow point out both spelling rules and their exceptions.
2. Use mnemonics (memory tricks) to help you remember how to spell unfamiliar or confusing words. The most common type of mnemonic is the acronym. An acronym is a word created from the first letters in a series of words. Another type of mnemonic is a silly sentence or phrase, known as an acrostic, which is made out of words that each begin with the letter or letters that start each item in a series that you want to remember.
3. Write it down. This book provides you with helpful exercises that require you to write your vocabulary words in a blank space. This act will help your hand and eye remember how to spell the word. Make sure to spell the word correctly as you go along so you don't have to relearn the word's spelling later on. After you are done with this book, you can teach yourself to spell new words in the same way. The simple act of writing words down several times will help you cement their spellings in your mind.
4. Referring to a pronunciation chart in any dictionary will help guide you through pronouncing the words in this book and also familiarize you with pronouncing other new words you encounter in everyday life.

Vowels

When to Use ie and ei

You probably learned this saying years ago in school:

i before e except after c and when sounding like "ay" as in neighbor and weigh.

This saying should help you remember the basic principle of when to use ie and ei when spelling words. The following sections outline the specifics of when to spell a word with ie and when to spell a word with ei and their exceptions.

The ie Rule

Here are some examples of words that use ie to make the long e sound:

achieve	niece
belief	piece
cashier	retrieve
chief	series
fierce	wield

Exceptions

Sometimes, the ie combination has other sounds:

• It can sound like short e, as in friend
• It can sound like long i, as in piety, fiery, quiet, notoriety, society, science
• The only time the ie combination comes after c is when it sounds like sh, as in ancient, deficient, conscience.

The ei Rule

Here are some examples of words in which ei makes the long a sound:

deign	reign
eight	sleigh
feign	surveillance
freight	vein
heinous	weight

Exceptions

Sometimes, you will simply have to memorize words that use the ei combination because they don't follow the rule.

• In some words, ei is used even though it sounds like ee: either, seize, weird, sheik, seizure, leisure
• Sometimes, ei sounds like long i: height, sleight, stein, seismology
• Sometimes, ei sounds like short e: heifer, their, foreign, forfeit
• As you learned in the previous saying, after c you use ei, even if it sounds like ee: ceiling, deceit, conceited, receive, receipt

More Vowel Combinations

When two vowels are together, the first one is usually long, or says its own name, and the second one is silent. For example, in the word reach, you hear the long e, but not the short a. Similarly, if you know how to pronounce the word caffeine and know it has either an ei or ie, you stand a chance at spelling it correctly because you hear that the e sound comes first. If you know what sound you hear, that sound is likely to be the first of two vowels working together.

Here are some examples of words using ai, ui, and ea combinations in which the vowel you hear is the one that comes first.

Words with ai	Words with ea	Words with ui
abstain	cheap	juice
acquaint	conceal	nuisance
chaise	gear	ruin
paisley	heal	suit
prevail	lead
refrain	reveal
traipse	steal

The Exceptions

There are several exceptions to this rule, which you will simply have to recognize by sight rather than by sound.

Exceptions

porcelain

beauty

healthy

hearse

hearty

In some cases, you still hear only the first of the two vowels, except the first vowel makes a different sound. For example, the word healthy is pronounced with a short e sound, but you still hear the e and not the a.

Words with ai or ia

When the vowel pair has one sound and says "uh" (e.g. captain), it uses ai. When the vowel pair has separate sounds (e.g. genial), it uses ia. However, there is an exception: When words combine t or c with ia, they make a "shuh" sound, for example, martial, beneficial, glacial. The following are some examples of words that follow the ai and ia rules:

Words with ai	Words with ia
Britain	alleviate
captain	brilliant
certain	civilian
chieftain	familiar
curtain	guardian
fountain	median
villain	menial

Consonants

Silent Consonants

Many English words include silent consonants, ones that are written but not pronounced. Unfortunately, there is no rule governing silent consonants; you simply have to learn the words by sight. The following list includes some common examples, with the silent consonants highlighted.

answer	gnaw	pseudonym
autumn	indict	psychology
blight	kneel	rhetorical
calm	knight	subtle
debt	knowledge	through
ghost	psalm	write

Memory Tricks

Use sound cues or sight cues, depending on which works better for you—or use both to reinforce your learning.

• Pronounce the silent consonants in your mind as you write them. Say subtle, often, and so on.
• Write the words on index cards and highlight the missing consonant sounds with a marker.

Doubling Consonants

Most of the time, a final consonant is doubled when you add an ending. For example, drop becomes dropping, mop becomes mopping, stab becomes stabbing. But what about look/looking, rest/resting, counsel/counseled?

The Rules

There are two sets of rules: one for when you're adding an ending that begins with a vowel (such as -ed, -ing, -ance, -ence, -ant) and another set for when the ending begins with a consonant (such as -ness or -ly).

1. When the ending begins with a vowel:
2. 
   
• Double the last consonant in a one-syllable word that ends with one vowel and one consonant. For example, flip becomes flipper or flipping, quit becomes quitter or quitting, and clap becomes clapper or clapping.
• Double the final consonant when the last syllable is accented and there is only one consonant in the accented syllable. For example, acquit becomes acquitting, refer becomes referring, and commit becomes committing.

You can remember a shorter version of the rules about doubling before an ending that begins with a vowel: one syllable or accented last syllable doubles the single consonant.

2. When the ending begins with a consonant:
3. 
   
• Keep a final n when you add -ness. You end up with a double n: keenness, leanness.
• Keep a final l when you add -ly. You end up with a double l: formally, regally, legally.

In other cases, then, you don't double the consonant.

The Exceptions

There are exceptions to the rules, but not many. Here are a few of them:

• bus becomes buses
• chagrin becomes chagrined
• draw becomes drawing

The Special Challenges of c and g

The letters c and g can sound either soft or hard. When c is soft, it sounds like s; when it's hard, it sounds like k. When g is soft, it sounds like j; when it's hard, it sounds like g as in guess. But the difference isn't as confusing as it seems at first. The letters c and g are soft when followed by e, i, or y. Otherwise, they are hard. Thus, c sounds like s when it is followed by e, i, or y, as in central, circle, cycle. It sounds like k when followed by other vowels: case, cousin, current. The same rule also applies to the letter g: g sounds like j when followed by e, i, or y, as in genius, giant, gym. When followed by other vowels, g is hard: gamble, go, gun.

The following are examples of words in which e, i, or y makes a soft c or g.

centimeter	general
centrifuge	generous
circulate	genteel
circus	germ
cyclical	giraffe
cymbal	gyrate

One more thing to remember is that a k is added to a final c before an ending that begins with e, i, or y. If you didn't add the k, the c would become soft and sound like s. So in order to add -ing to panic, for example, you have to put a k first: panicking.

The following words are examples of words that have had a k added to c before an ending beginning with e, i, or y.

mimicking	picnicked
panicky	trafficking

There are virtually no exceptions to the rules about using c and g. Listen to the words as you spell them and let the rule guide your choice: c, s, or k; g or j.

Homonyms

Homonyms are words that sound the same but are spelled differently. Many of these words have just one change in the vowel or vowel combination. There's no rule about these words, so you'll simply have to memorize them. Here are some examples of word pairs that can be troublesome. Sometimes, it helps to learn each word in terms of the job it will do in a sentence. Often, the two words in a homophone pair are a different part of speech. Take a look at the following examples:

affect/effect	led/lead
altar/alter	minor/miner
bare/bear	passed/past
bloc/block	peal/peel
cite/site	piece/peace
cord/chord	sheer/shear
coarse/course	stationery/stationary
descent/dissent	weak/week
dual/duel	which/witch
heal/heel	write/right

Since the meanings of these homonyms are different, context is probably the best way to differentiate between these words.

Examples in Context

• In the Middle Ages, many people used to shear (verb) sheep for a living.

Since my curtains are sheer (adjective), I get a lot of light in the morning.

• We had to alter (verb) our plans because of the bad weather.

The couple stood at the altar (noun) while they said their vows.

• I had to use coarse (adjective) sandpaper to strip the paint off of the wooden desk.

When I was in college, drama was my favorite course (noun).

Try the following exercise to practice identifying the correct homonym in context.

Endings

When to Drop a Final e

It's hard to remember when to drop letters and when to keep them. This lesson will nail down some simple rules to help you with those decisions.

 

Rule 1

Drop the final e when you add an ending that begins with a vowel.

• With -ing

change + -ing = changing

• With -able

argue + -able = arguable

• With -ous

virtue + -ous = virtuous

• With -ity

opportune + -ity = opportunity

The Exceptions

• Keep the final e after soft c or soft g in order to keep the soft sound.

peace + -able = peaceable

courage + -ous = courageous

• Keep the final e in other cases when you need to protect pronunciation.

shoe + -ing = shoeing (not shoing)

guarantee + -ing = guaranteeing (not guaranteing)

Rule 2

Keep the final e before endings that begin with consonants. Here are some examples of words that use this rule:

• With -ment

advertise + -ment = advertisement

• With -ness

appropriate + -ness = appropriateness

• With -less

care + -less = careless

• With -ful

grace + -ful = graceful

The Exception

There's one important exception to the rule about keeping the final e when you add an ending that begins with a consonant:

• Drop the final e when it occurs after the letters u or w.

argue + -ment = argument

awe + -ful = awful

true + -ly = truly

When to Keep a Final y or Change It to i

When you add a suffix to a word ending in y, keep the y if it follows a vowel. This time it doesn't matter whether the suffix begins with a vowel or a consonant. Always keep the y if it comes immediately after a vowel. The following are some examples.

• With -s

attorney + -s = attorneys

• With -ed

play + -ed = played

• With -ing

relay + -ing = relaying

• With -ance

annoy + -ance = annoyance

• With -able

enjoy + -able = enjoyable

The Exceptions

Some words break this rule and change the y to i.

• day becomes daily
• pay becomes paid
• say becomes said

When you add a suffix to a word ending in y, change the y to i if it follows a consonant. Again, it doesn't matter whether the suffix begins with a vowel or a consonant. Here are some examples:

• With -ful

beauty + -ful = beautiful

• With -ness

lonely + -ness = loneliness

• With -ly

angry + -ly = angrily

• With -es

salary + -es = salaries

The Exception

There's one group of exceptions to the previous rule:

• When you add -ing, keep the final y.

study + -ing = studying

Plurals

One of the difficulties of spelling in English is the making of plurals. Unfortunately, you can't always simply add the letter -s to the end of the word to signal more than one.

When to Use -s or -es to Form Plurals

There are two simple rules that govern most plurals.

Most nouns add -s to make plurals.

If a noun ends in a sibilant sound (s, ss, z, ch, x, sh), add -es.

The following are some examples of plurals:

books	computers	guesses
buzzes	dishes	indexes
cars	dresses	lunches
churches	faxes	skills

The Exception

Remember from the last lesson that when a word ends in a y preceded by a consonant, the y changes to i when you add -es.

Singular	Plural
fly	flies
rally	rallies

Plurals for Words That End in o

There's just one quick rule that governs a few words ending in o.

If a final o follows another vowel, it takes -s.

Here are some examples:

patios	radios
studios	videos

The Exceptions

When the final o follows a consonant rather than a vowel, there's no rule to guide you in choosing -s or -es. You just have to learn the individual words.

The following words form a plural with -s alone.

albinos	pianos
altos	silos
banjos	sopranos
logos	broncos

The following words take -es.

heroes	tomatoes
potatoes	vetoes

When in doubt about whether to add -s or -es, look it up in the dictionary.

Plurals for Words That End in f

Some words that end in f or fe just take -s to form the plural. Others change the f to v and add -es or -s. Unfortunately, there are no rules that can apply to this category of plurals; you simply have to memorize them.

The following are some of the words that keep the final f and add -s:

beliefs	gulfs
chiefs	kerchiefs
cuffs	proofs

Here are some of the words that change the final f to v and take -es:

elves	loaves	thieves
knives	selves	wives
leaves	shelves	wolves

Plurals That Don't Use -s or -es

There are many words that don't use -s or -es to form plurals. These are usually words that still observe the rules of the languages from which they were adopted. Most of these plurals are part of your reading, speaking, and listening vocabularies. You can see that there are patterns that will help you. For instance, in Latin words, -um becomes -a, -us becomes -i, and, in Greek words, -sis becomes -ses. A good way to remember these plurals is by saying the words aloud, because for the most part, they do change form and you may remember them more easily if you listen to the sound of the spelling.

Singular	Plural
alumnus	alumni
analysis	analyses
axis	axes
basis	bases
child	children
curriculum	curricula
datum	data
deer	deer
fungus	fungi
goose	geese
man	men
medium	media
mouse	mice
oasis	oases
ox	oxen
parenthesis	parentheses
stratum	strata
thesis	theses
woman

Putting Words Together

Prefixes

Generally, when you add a prefix to a root word, neither the root nor the prefix changes spelling:

un- + prepared = unprepared

mal- + nutrition = malnutrition

sub- + traction = subtraction

mis- + informed = misinformed

This rule applies even when the root word begins with the same letter as the prefix. Generally, you use both consonants, but let your eye be your guide. If it looks odd, it's probably not spelled correctly. The following are some examples:

dissatisfied	irreverent
disservice	misspelled
illegible	misstep
irrational	unnatural

Hyphens

When you put words and word parts together, it's difficult to know when to leave the words separate, when to hyphenate, and when to put the words or word parts together into one new word. Do you write co- dependent or codependent? Do you have a son in law or a son-inlaw? There are several rules for using hyphens to join words. Often, these words are joined so they can perform a new function in the sentence.

• Combine words with a hyphen to form an adjective when the adjective appears before a noun.

a well-heeled man

a first-rate hotel

a well-known actor

• When the combination of words that makes an adjective appears after the noun, the combination is not hyphenated.

It's a job ill suited to his talents.

She is well regarded in the community.

The hotel is first rate.

• Combine words with a hyphen when the words are used together as one part of speech. This includes family relationships.

editor-in-chief

jack-of-all-trades

maid-of-all-work

mother-in-law

runner-up

sister-in-law

• Use a hyphen before elect and after vice, ex, or self (except in the case of "vice president").

ex-president

ex-teacher

self-styled

senator-elect

vice-admiral

• Use a hyphen when joining a prefix to a capitalized word.

mid-Atlantic

pan-European

post-Civil War

trans-Siberian

un-American

• Use a hyphen to make compound numbers or fractions.

thirty-nine years

one and two-thirds cups of broth

one-half of the country

three-fourths of the electorate

• Also, use a hyphen when you combine numbers with nouns.

a class of six-year-olds

a two-year term

a twenty-five-cent fare

• Use a hyphen to form ethnic designations.

an African-American woman

the Sino-Russian War

the Austro-Hungarian Railroad

Except for the cases you just reviewed, prefixes are also joined directly to root words. The best rule of thumb is this: If the phrase acts like an adjective, it probably needs a hyphen. If you want to put two words together and they don't seem to fit into any of these rules, the best strategy is to consult a dictionary.

Apostrophes and Abbreviations

Apostrophes are often misused, and knowing when and when not to use them can be confusing. Of all the punctuation marks, the apostrophe is the one most likely to be misused. Fortunately, there are a few simple rules; if you follow them, you won't go wrong with apostrophes.

The Rules

1. Use an apostrophe to show possession: Jack's book.
2. Use an apostrophe to make a contraction: We don't like broccoli.
3. Do not use an apostrophe to make a plural: I have two apples (not apple's).
4. Do not use an apostrophe to make a number plural: the 1960s, ten 5s (five-dollar bills).

Possessives

The following rules show you how to use apostrophes to show possession.

• Singular noun: add 's

the child's cap

• Singular noun ending in ss: add 's

the hostess's home

• Plural noun ending in s: add '

the lawyers' bills

• Plural noun not ending in s: add 's

The Children's Museum, the men's clothes

• Proper noun (name): add 's

Jenny's watch, Chris's car, the Jones's house

• Singular indefinite pronoun: add 's

one's only hope

• Plural indefinite pronoun: add '

all the others' votes

• Compound noun: add ' or 's after the final word

the men-at-arms' task, my mother-in-law's house

• Joint possession: add 's to the final name

Jim and Fred's coffee house

• Separate possession: add 's after both names

Betty's and Ching's menus

Contractions

A contraction is formed by putting two words together and omitting one or more letters. The idea is that you add an apostrophe to show that letters have been left out. For example, "We have decided to move to Alaska" becomes, "We've decided to move to Alaska."

Here's a list of some of the most common contractions:

he will = he'll

I will = I'll

we will = we'll

it is = it's

she is = she's

you are = you're

they are = they're

we are = we're

cannot = can't

1960 = '60

do not = don't

does not = doesn't

have not = haven't

should not = shouldn't

will not = won't

There are other ways in which an apostrophe can represent missing letters:

• In dialect: "I'm goin' down to the swimmin' hole," said the boy.
• When the letter o represents of: "Top o' the morning to you."

Abbreviations

Many words and expressions in English are shortened by means of abbreviations. Though certain abbreviations are not usually used in formal writing, such as abbreviations for days of the week, they can be useful in less formal situations. Abbreviations are usually followed by periods.

The Exceptions

• Don't use periods with the two-letter postal code abbreviations for states: CA, FL, IL, NJ, NY, TX, and so on.
• Don't use periods for initials representing a company or agency: FBI, CBS, NFL.
• Don't use periods after the letters in acronyms.

Common Abbreviations

Type	Examples
Names of days	Sun., Mon., Tues., Wed., etc.
Names of months	Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., etc.
Titles and degrees	Mr., Mrs., Ms., Esq., Dr., Hon.,M.D., Ph.D., Ed.D.
Rank	Sgt., Capt., Maj., Col., Gen.
Business terms	C.O.D. (collect on delivery), Mfg.(Manufacturing), Inc. (Incorporated), Assn. (Association), Ltd. (Limited)

Basic Spelling Rules

One of the most common spelling rules taught to elementary students is "I before E, except after C, unless it says A as in neighbor and weigh." However, there are a number of other rules that you can use to help decode the spelling of an unfamiliar word. For example:

• The letter Q is always followed by U. In this case, the U is not considered to be a vowel.
• The letter S never follows X.
• The letter Y, not I, is used at the end of English words. Examples of this rule include my, by, shy, and why.
• To spell a short vowel sound, only one letter is needed. Examples of this rule include at, red, it, hot, and up.
• Drop the E. When a word ends with a silent final E, it should be written without the E when adding an ending that begins with a vowel. In this way, come becomes coming and hope becomes hoping.
• When adding an ending to a word that ends with Y, change the Y to I if it is preceded by a consonant. In this way, supply becomes supplies and worry becomes worried.
• All, written alone, has two L's. When used as a prefix, however, only one L is written. Examples of this rule include also and almost.
• Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change the correct spelling.
• Words ending in a vowel and Y can add the suffix -ed or -ing without making any other change.

Spelling From Dictation Using Multisensory Techniques. 

Various multisensory spelling procedures have been developed and include some or all of the following components;

1. Listen to the word and look at the teacher’s mouth.
2. Repeat the word dictated by the teacher. Students may look in small mirrors as they repeat the word.
3. Pronounce each sound or syllable in the word (in some methods, only the vowel is pronounced)
4. Use a gesture as each sound or syllable is pronounced (e.g., sound tapping; finger spelling; moving a marker for each sound; tapping the hand on the arm for each sound or syllable; placing a paper or felt square for each syllable).
5. Name each letter in the word.
6. Write each letter while saying the letter name or sound. Variations include writing in the air, on the table, using individual letters that are manipulated, as well as writing with a pencil.
7. Read the word that has been written and proof. At this step, some teachers ask the student to mark aspects of the word (e.g., indicate if the vowels are long or short; underline consonant digraphs; etc.). Methods of proofing include: touch and name each letter; tap each sound in the word and check the letter/s used to represent it. Teachers provide corrective feedback and students correct their errors.

A Procedure and Mnemonic for Spelling Single Syllable Words from Dictation

After students can segment consonant-vowel-consonant words into first, middle, and final sounds and have learned a small set of consonants and short vowel letter-sound associations, the following procedure is appropriate for practice of spelling:
1. Teacher dictates word and student repeats
2. Student segments words into sounds (teacher gives feedback as necessary)
3. The student spells the word by giving the letter names
4. Students either selects the letters (from a set of letters on cards) or writes the letters
5. The student reads the word

By : Yoga.Aw

Source :

1.      http://www.education.com/study-help/article/spelling-rules/?page=4

2.      http://www.ncsip.org/programs/Unit%209.html